A long-held assumption that reading interventions are only effective in the early years of schooling is challenged by a major new international review, which finds targeted support can significantly improve outcomes for struggling readers well into secondary school.
Published in Educational Research Review, the systematic review and meta-analysis examined 106 studies involving more than 156,000 students in Grades 4 to 12 across Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States. It is one of the most comprehensive assessments to date of what works for older students with reading difficulties.
The analysis covered a broad range of reading skills, including comprehension, fluency, decoding, phonological processing and vocabulary, all core components of reading proficiency. According to the lead author, Dr Callula Killingly from Queensland University of Technology’s Centre for Inclusive Education, the findings provide clear evidence that well-designed interventions remain effective beyond the early years.
“Our analysis shows it’s never too late to make a difference,” Dr Killingly said. “When interventions target the specific skills students need, they can significantly improve outcomes in upper primary and secondary school, even for students with persistent reading difficulties.”
The review found particularly strong effects for interventions focused on comprehension and vocabulary. Notably, outcomes were comparable whether programs were delivered by classroom teachers or researchers, with some of the strongest vocabulary gains achieved through teacher-led instruction.
The researchers also found no significant differences linked to delivery format. Interventions were equally effective whether delivered one-on-one, in small groups or within the classroom setting.
“This suggests it’s not about where the intervention happens, or who delivers it,” Dr Killingly said. “What matters is that it is carefully targeted to address students’ specific reading needs.”
The study was conducted by a team including Dr Killingly, Dr Sandra Matheson and Dr Laura Bentley, formerly of QUT and now at the University of Queensland, alongside Dr Elizabeth Swanson from the University of Texas at Austin. The research was supported by QUT’s Early Career Researcher Grant Scheme and the Centre for Inclusive Education.
The findings reinforce the case for sustained investment in literacy support beyond the early years, challenging policy settings that assume struggling readers have limited capacity to improve later in schooling.
